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4.2.2 Congressional Research Service In 1803 the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v Madison holding however that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself the Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers Alexander Hamilton for example mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No 78 Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law it is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially in 1857 for example the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations, Seated suits behind a microphone The anti-literacy laws after 1832 contributed greatly to the problem of widespread illiteracy facing the freedmen and other African Americans after Emancipation and the Civil War 35 years later the problem of illiteracy and need for education was seen as one of the greatest challenges confronting these people as they sought to join the free enterprise system and support themselves during Reconstruction and thereafter. As early as 1651 the English government had sought to regulate trade in the American colonies On October 9 the Navigation Acts were passed pursuant to a mercantilist policy intended to ensure that trade enriched only Great Britain and barring trade with foreign nations. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction which the acts triggered was more serious as the merchants most directly affected were most politically active. King Philip's War ended in 1678 and much of it was fought without significant assistance from England This contributed to the development of a unique identity separate from that of the British people; 3.1.2 Enumerated powers Martha Washington 5.4 Children's books .. the percentage of free black slave owners as the total number of free black heads of families was quite high in several states namely 43 percent in South Carolina 40 percent in Louisiana 26 percent in Mississippi 25 percent in Alabama and 20 percent in Georgia. Main article: U.S Congress and citizens, 6.5 Second term Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8 1913 with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability, As a respected military hero and large landowner Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758. He plied the voters with beer brandy and other beverages although he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition. He won election with roughly 40 percent of the vote defeating three other candidates with the help of several local supporters He rarely spoke in his early legislative career but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation and mercantilist policies in the 1760s. 9 Personal life Main article: Congressional Budget Office George Washington as Master of his Lodge 1793 7 Aftermath. . The desertion rate in the U.S Army was 8.3% (9,200 out of 111,000) compared to 12.7% during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8% per year. Many men deserted to join another U.S unit and get a second enlistment bonus Some deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp it has been suggested that others used the army to get free transportation to California where they deserted to join the gold rush; this however is unlikely as gold was only discovered in California on January 24 1848 less than two weeks before the war concluded.[original research?] By the time word reached the eastern U.S that gold had been discovered word also reached it that the war was over, The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day that he died the published account of Drs Craik and Brown[q] stated that his symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis (tracheal inflammation) a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe including quinsy Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice with some believing that he had been bled to death. Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitis complicated by the given treatments most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[r].

; Main article: Demographics of Washington D.C Further information: Civil War Defenses of Washington. . Eastern Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) can be found sheltering under rocks along the banks of the Potomac.